Release: 2.0.23 | Release Date: November 2, 2023

# SQLAlchemy 2.0 Documentation

# Changing Attribute Behavior

This section will discuss features and techniques used to modify the behavior of ORM mapped attributes, including those mapped with `mapped_column()`, `relationship()`, and others.

## Simple Validators

A quick way to add a “validation” routine to an attribute is to use the `validates()` decorator. An attribute validator can raise an exception, halting the process of mutating the attribute’s value, or can change the given value into something different. Validators, like all attribute extensions, are only called by normal userland code; they are not issued when the ORM is populating the object:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import validates

    class EmailAddress(Base):
        __tablename__ = "address"

        id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        email = mapped_column(String)

        @validates("email")
        def validate_email(self, key, address):
            if "@" not in address:
                raise ValueError("failed simple email validation")
            return address

Validators also receive collection append events, when items are added to a collection:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import validates

    class User(Base):
        # ...

        addresses = relationship("Address")

        @validates("addresses")
        def validate_address(self, key, address):
            if "@" not in address.email:
                raise ValueError("failed simplified email validation")
            return address

The validation function by default does not get emitted for collection remove events, as the typical expectation is that a value being discarded doesn’t require validation. However, `validates()` supports reception of these events by specifying `include_removes=True` to the decorator. When this flag is set, the validation function must receive an additional boolean argument which if `True` indicates that the operation is a removal:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import validates

    class User(Base):
        # ...

        addresses = relationship("Address")

        @validates("addresses", include_removes=True)
        def validate_address(self, key, address, is_remove):
            if is_remove:
                raise ValueError("not allowed to remove items from the collection")
            else:
                if "@" not in address.email:
                    raise ValueError("failed simplified email validation")
                return address

The case where mutually dependent validators are linked via a backref can also be tailored, using the `include_backrefs=False` option; this option, when set to `False`, prevents a validation function from emitting if the event occurs as a result of a backref:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import validates

    class User(Base):
        # ...

        addresses = relationship("Address", backref="user")

        @validates("addresses", include_backrefs=False)
        def validate_address(self, key, address):
            if "@" not in address:
                raise ValueError("failed simplified email validation")
            return address

Above, if we were to assign to `Address.user` as in `some_address.user = some_user`, the `validate_address()` function would not be emitted, even though an append occurs to `some_user.addresses` - the event is caused by a backref.

Note that the `validates()` decorator is a convenience function built on top of attribute events. An application that requires more control over configuration of attribute change behavior can make use of this system, described at `AttributeEvents`.

Object Name | Description
--- | ---
validates(*names, [include_removes, include_backrefs]) | Decorate a method as a ‘validator’ for one or more named properties.

function sqlalchemy.orm.validates(*names: str, include_removes: bool = False, include_backrefs: bool = True) → Callable[[_Fn], _Fn]

  Decorate a method as a ‘validator’ for one or more named properties.

  Designates a method as a validator, a method which receives the name of the attribute as well as a value to be assigned, or in the case of a collection, the value to be added to the collection. The function can then raise validation exceptions to halt the process from continuing (where Python’s built-in `ValueError` and `AssertionError` exceptions are reasonable choices), or can modify or replace the value before proceeding. The function should otherwise return the given value.

  Note that a validator for a collection cannot issue a load of that collection within the validation routine - this usage raises an assertion to avoid recursion overflows. This is a reentrant condition which is not supported.

  Parameters:

    - *names – list of attribute names to be validated.

    - include_removes – if True, “remove” events will be sent as well - the validation function must accept an additional argument “is_remove” which will be a boolean.

    - include_backrefs –

      defaults to `True`; if `False`, the validation function will not emit if the originator is an attribute event related via a backref. This can be used for bi-directional `validates()` usage where only one validator should emit per attribute operation.

      Changed in version 2.0.16: This paramter inadvertently defaulted to `False` for releases 2.0.0 through 2.0.15. Its correct default of `True` is restored in 2.0.16.

  See also

  Simple Validators - usage examples for `validates()`

## Using Custom Datatypes at the Core Level

A non-ORM means of affecting the value of a column in a way that suits converting data between how it is represented in Python, vs. how it is represented in the database, can be achieved by using a custom datatype that is applied to the mapped `Table` metadata. This is more common in the case of some style of encoding / decoding that occurs both as data goes to the database and as it is returned; read more about this in the Core documentation at Augmenting Existing Types.

## Using Descriptors and Hybrids

A more comprehensive way to produce modified behavior for an attribute is to use descriptors. These are commonly used in Python using the `property()` function. The standard SQLAlchemy technique for descriptors is to create a plain descriptor, and to have it read/write from a mapped attribute with a different name. Below we illustrate this using Python 2.6-style properties:

    class EmailAddress(Base):
        __tablename__ = "email_address"

        id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)

        # name the attribute with an underscore,
        # different from the column name
        _email = mapped_column("email", String)

        # then create an ".email" attribute
        # to get/set "._email"
        @property
        def email(self):
            return self._email

        @email.setter
        def email(self, email):
            self._email = email

The approach above will work, but there’s more we can add. While our `EmailAddress` object will shuttle the value through the `email` descriptor and into the `_email` mapped attribute, the class level `EmailAddress.email` attribute does not have the usual expression semantics usable with `Select`. To provide these, we instead use the `hybrid` extension as follows:

    from sqlalchemy.ext.hybrid import hybrid_property

    class EmailAddress(Base):
        __tablename__ = "email_address"

        id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)

        _email = mapped_column("email", String)

        @hybrid_property
        def email(self):
            return self._email

        @email.setter
        def email(self, email):
            self._email = email

The `.email` attribute, in addition to providing getter/setter behavior when we have an instance of `EmailAddress`, also provides a SQL expression when used at the class level, that is, from the `EmailAddress` class directly:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import Session
    from sqlalchemy import select

    session = Session()

    address = session.scalars(
        select(EmailAddress).where(EmailAddress.email == "address@example.com")
    ).one()
    SELECT address.email AS address_email, address.id AS address_id
    FROM address
    WHERE address.email = ?
    ('address@example.com',)
    address.email = "otheraddress@example.com"
    session.commit()
    UPDATE address SET email=? WHERE address.id = ?
    ('otheraddress@example.com', 1)
    COMMIT

The `hybrid_property` also allows us to change the behavior of the attribute, including defining separate behaviors when the attribute is accessed at the instance level versus at the class/expression level, using the `hybrid_property.expression()` modifier. Such as, if we wanted to add a host name automatically, we might define two sets of string manipulation logic:

    class EmailAddress(Base):
        __tablename__ = "email_address"

        id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)

        _email = mapped_column("email", String)

        @hybrid_property
        def email(self):
            """Return the value of _email up until the last twelve
            characters."""

            return self._email[:-12]

        @email.setter
        def email(self, email):
            """Set the value of _email, tacking on the twelve character
            value @example.com."""

            self._email = email + "@example.com"

        @email.expression
        def email(cls):
            """Produce a SQL expression that represents the value
            of the _email column, minus the last twelve characters."""

            return func.substr(cls._email, 0, func.length(cls._email) - 12)

Above, accessing the `email` property of an instance of `EmailAddress` will return the value of the `_email` attribute, removing or adding the hostname `@example.com` from the value. When we query against the `email` attribute, a SQL function is rendered which produces the same effect:

    address = session.scalars(
        select(EmailAddress).where(EmailAddress.email == "address")
    ).one()
    SELECT address.email AS address_email, address.id AS address_id
    FROM address
    WHERE substr(address.email, ?, length(address.email) - ?) = ?
    (0, 12, 'address')

Read more about Hybrids at Hybrid Attributes.

## Synonyms

Synonyms are a mapper-level construct that allow any attribute on a class to “mirror” another attribute that is mapped.

In the most basic sense, the synonym is an easy way to make a certain attribute available by an additional name:

    from sqlalchemy.orm import synonym

    class MyClass(Base):
        __tablename__ = "my_table"

        id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        job_status = mapped_column(String(50))

        status = synonym("job_status")

The above class `MyClass` has two attributes, `.job_status` and `.status` that will behave as one attribute, both at the expression level:

    >>> print(MyClass.job_status == "some_status")
    my_table.job_status = :job_status_1
    >>> print(MyClass.status == "some_status")
    my_table.job_status = :job_status_1

and at the instance level:

    >>> m1 = MyClass(status="x")
    >>> m1.status, m1.job_status
    ('x', 'x')

    >>> m1.job_status = "y"
    >>> m1.status, m1.job_status
    ('y', 'y')

The `synonym()` can be used for any kind of mapped attribute that subclasses `MapperProperty`, including mapped columns and relationships, as well as synonyms themselves.

Beyond a simple mirror, `synonym()` can also be made to reference a user-defined descriptor. We can supply our `status` synonym with a `@property`:

    class MyClass(Base):
        __tablename__ = "my_table"

        id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        status = mapped_column(String(50))

        @property
        def job_status(self):
            return "Status: " + self.status

        job_status = synonym("status", descriptor=job_status)

When using Declarative, the above pattern can be expressed more succinctly using the `synonym_for()` decorator:

    from sqlalchemy.ext.declarative import synonym_for

    class MyClass(Base):
        __tablename__ = "my_table"

        id = mapped_column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        status = mapped_column(String(50))

        @synonym_for("status")
        @property
        def job_status(self):
            return "Status: " + self.status

While the `synonym()` is useful for simple mirroring, the use case of augmenting attribute behavior with descriptors is better handled in modern usage using the hybrid attribute feature, which is more oriented towards Python descriptors. Technically, a `synonym()` can do everything that a `hybrid_property` can do, as it also supports injection of custom SQL capabilities, but the hybrid is more straightforward to use in more complex situations.

Object Name | Description
--- | ---
synonym(name, *, [map_column, descriptor, comparator_factory, init, repr, default, default_factory, compare, kw_only, info, doc]) | Denote an attribute name as a synonym to a mapped property, in that the attribute will mirror the value and expression behavior of another attribute.

function sqlalchemy.orm.synonym(name: str, *, map_column: bool | None = None, descriptor: Any | None = None, comparator_factory: Type[PropComparator[_T]] | None = None, init: _NoArg | bool = _NoArg.NO_ARG, repr: _NoArg | bool = _NoArg.NO_ARG, default: _NoArg | _T = _NoArg.NO_ARG, default_factory: _NoArg | Callable[[], _T] = _NoArg.NO_ARG, compare: _NoArg | bool = _NoArg.NO_ARG, kw_only: _NoArg | bool = _NoArg.NO_ARG, info: _InfoType | None = None, doc: str | None = None) → Synonym[Any]

  Denote an attribute name as a synonym to a mapped property, in that the attribute will mirror the value and expression behavior of another attribute.

  e.g.:

      class MyClass(Base):
          __tablename__ = 'my_table'

          id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
          job_status = Column(String(50))

          status = synonym("job_status")

  Parameters:

    - name – the name of the existing mapped property. This can refer to the string name ORM-mapped attribute configured on the class, including column-bound attributes and relationships.

    - descriptor – a Python descriptor that will be used as a getter (and potentially a setter) when this attribute is accessed at the instance level.

    - map_column –

      For classical mappings and mappings against an existing Table object only. if `True`, the `synonym()` construct will locate the `Column` object upon the mapped table that would normally be associated with the attribute name of this synonym, and produce a new `ColumnProperty` that instead maps this `Column` to the alternate name given as the “name” argument of the synonym; in this way, the usual step of redefining the mapping of the `Column` to be under a different name is unnecessary. This is usually intended to be used when a `Column` is to be replaced with an attribute that also uses a descriptor, that is, in conjunction with the `synonym.descriptor` parameter:

          my_table = Table(
              "my_table", metadata,
              Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
              Column('job_status', String(50))
          )

          class MyClass:
              @property
              def _job_status_descriptor(self):
                  return "Status: %s" % self._job_status

          mapper(
              MyClass, my_table, properties={
                  "job_status": synonym(
                      "_job_status", map_column=True,
                      descriptor=MyClass._job_status_descriptor)
              }
          )

      Above, the attribute named `_job_status` is automatically mapped to the `job_status` column:

          >>> j1 = MyClass()
          >>> j1._job_status = "employed"
          >>> j1.job_status
          Status: employed

      When using Declarative, in order to provide a descriptor in conjunction with a synonym, use the `sqlalchemy.ext.declarative.synonym_for()` helper. However, note that the hybrid properties feature should usually be preferred, particularly when redefining attribute behavior.

    - info – Optional data dictionary which will be populated into the `InspectionAttr.info` attribute of this object.

    - comparator_factory –

      A subclass of `PropComparator` that will provide custom comparison behavior at the SQL expression level.

      Note

      For the use case of providing an attribute which redefines both Python-level and SQL-expression level behavior of an attribute, please refer to the Hybrid attribute introduced at Using Descriptors and Hybrids for a more effective technique.

  See also

  Synonyms - Overview of synonyms

  `synonym_for()` - a helper oriented towards Declarative

  Using Descriptors and Hybrids - The Hybrid Attribute extension provides an updated approach to augmenting attribute behavior more flexibly than can be achieved with synonyms.

## Operator Customization

The “operators” used by the SQLAlchemy ORM and Core expression language are fully customizable. For example, the comparison expression `User.name == 'ed'` makes usage of an operator built into Python itself called `operator.eq` - the actual SQL construct which SQLAlchemy associates with such an operator can be modified. New operations can be associated with column expressions as well. The operators which take place for column expressions are most directly redefined at the type level - see the section Redefining and Creating New Operators for a description.

ORM level functions like `column_property()`, `relationship()`, and `composite()` also provide for operator redefinition at the ORM level, by passing a `PropComparator` subclass to the `comparator_factory` argument of each function. Customization of operators at this level is a rare use case. See the documentation at `PropComparator` for an overview.